Gender stereotypes

Gender stereotypes refer to the characterisation of groups based on their basic gender attribute as male or female. The gender-based stereotypes are the simplified evaluations of male and female groups that are shared by the community, a culture, a society. The evaluations usually encompass the attributes of physical capability, psychological state, personality, interests and behaviour. (Hogg & Vaughan, 2008) These attributions could be based on fact that such as the differences in the physiological and hormonal characteristics of males and females. However, the evaluations may be overstated. The other attribute evaluations may not be supported by evidence. (Myers, 2008) The nature and source of stereotypes lead to two implications. One implication is on the positive or negative impact of gender stereotypes. Women as emotional and men as rational could be positive when considered as strengths but these stereotypes could also be negative when used to discriminate or exclude in the workplace and in other situations. The other implications is the non-predictive value of these stereotypes over the individual attributes of members of the group. While women are stereotyped as emotional and men are stereotyped as rational, these are not necessarily the core attributes of all females or males. Nevertheless, gender stereotypes are pervasive in different cultures and form part of day-to-day lives. As such, gender stereotypes form during the growing up years (Hogg & Vaughan, 2008). Acquired gender stereotypes develop alongside gender roles, influence gender roles and are reinforced by gender roles. Understanding the factors that foster the development of gender stereotypes and gender roles provide the key areas in influencing the development or in changing the stereotypes and gender roles developed during childhood. Children going through the developmental stages are exposed to different factors that influence their development of gender stereotypes and gender roles. Two of the most pervasive influences on the development of gender stereotypes and gender roles in children are parental influence and media influence. The earliest exposure of children to the meaning of gender and gender differences is from parents. During the development stage, children look up to their parents in developing perceptions, beliefs and attitudes towards various aspects including gender characteristics and roles. (Erkes & Trautner, 2000) Gender socialisation is one concept that explains parental influence on the development of gender stereotypes and gender roles in children. Gender socialisation is the process that facilitates interactive learning of certain behaviours considered as acceptable for males and females based on social-cultural beliefs and values (Hogg & Vaughan, 2008; Myers, 2008). The different expectations for males and females build stereotypes that are reinforced by how these are exacted from children by their parents, The attitudes of parents towards their children, in terms of the encouragement of gendered activities and interests, influence the development of gender stereotypes and roles (Eckes & Trautner, 2000). One manifestation of parental attitudes towards gender is differentiation through colours and patterns (Cunningham, 2001). As early as the pregnancy, the baby’s room is designed and furnished according to the expected gender of the baby. When babies are born, parents buy things such as clothes and other items depending on the gender of their child. Typically, pink is the colour for female babies and blue for male babies. Floral and other similar patterns are bought for girls while cars and truck prints are designated for boys. Dolls are typically for girls and cars or trains for boys. These attitudes and behaviours of parents communicate differences between males and females together with expectations on the concurrent attitudes and behaviour of their male or female children. Another manifestation of parental influence is the chores assumed by parents and assigned to their children (Cunningham, 2001). Usually, girls have more chores inside the household. Mothers usually obtain help from daughters. Sons are also assigned chores but these commonly pertain to work such as lifting or other manual work. These gendered attitudes and behaviours of parents exert influence during socialisation with their children who are receptive to the explicit and implicit messages communicated to them (Eckes & Trautner, 2000) As they become aware of gender differences, they also develop male and female stereotypes. Concurrently, they also start to assume gender roles. Parental influence during the development stages is the key to the development of gender identity. Gender stereotypes and roles acquired during childhood are likely to be retained in the long-term. Parental identification is another concept that explains parental influence as a factor contributing to the development of gender stereotypes and gender roles in children. Parental identification is the process of internalising he attributes of parents and the unconscious repetition of the perceptions, attitudes and behaviour of parents by children (Hogg & Vaughan, 2008). Male children internalise the observed characteristics of their fathers and female children internalise the attributes of their mothers. The gender stereotypes shared and exhibited by parents and the gender roles assumed by the parents constitute signals of the attributes of males and females. Socio-economic background influence the extent of gendered attributes of par ents. Apart from an expected higher educational level for families with higher incomes, gender stereotypes and gender roles is linked to economic status. In developing countries with high poverty rates, gender stereotyping and gender roles are strong. Male preference is tied to expectations of bigger income. Manual work, which is the predominant work, is delegated to males. Domestic chores are assigned to females. In developed countries, female children tend to have lesser restrictions in terms of expected roles. Nevertheless, other factors such as educational attainment of parents determine the gendered attributes observed from parents. Parental influence contributes to the development of gender stereotypes and gender roles in children through the processes of gender socialisation and parental identification with children becoming aware of gender differences through the attitudes and behaviours of parents. The media refers to a wide range of venues including television, gaming consoles, mobile phones, and the Internet. Exposure of children to media has increased over the past five years. A recent survey showed that half of the children under the ages of 5-7 have televisions inside their rooms that they can use anytime without parental supervision. Households with a gaming console have also risen from 67 to 85 percent. Children in this age group also increasingly own personal mobile phones. Every one in five children between 5-7 years old can access the Internet in their homes without supervision from their parents. These support the strong influence of media on children during the development years. There are benefits and downsides to the exposure of children to media. The benefits include reinforcement and support for academic learning. The Internet has become a virtual encyclopaedia for children. Another benefit is social learning. However, the benefits are not absolute and largely depend on the type of media content exposure (Villani, 2001). The downside is the adverse influences on perceptions, attitudes, personality and behaviour from the media content and lack of parental supervision to medicate media influence. Media has an influence on the development needs of young children depending on the media content and the internalisation of this content. Gender stereotyping and gender roles are developmental areas strongly affected by media. Gender socialisation also occurs through media influence. Gender socialisation through media refers to the interaction between children and media content presented in various venues (Hogg & Vaughan, 2008; Myers, 2008). The nature of interaction involves the expression of messages pertaining to gender by media content and mode of delivery. Children internalise these messages to influence their development of ideas on gender, which together with their experiences, affect the development of gender stereotypes and gender roles. Movies and television shows comprise a media more popularly accessible to children. When media portray gendered messages aligns with their actual experiences, then media becomes a reinforcement of their awareness of gendered meanings. If media portrayal differs from their experiences, then other influences such as peers and the school become mediating factors in the development of perceptions about gender. The role of parental supervision is the key to how children internalise gendered messages from movies and television shows. Games are mostly role playing games with players selecting their characters, In the case of games designed for children, gender distinctions emerge from the creation of characters with physical attributes reflecting beauty for girl characters and strength for boy characters (Villani, 2001). The characters usually have clear-cut gender delineations with male characters with muscled physique and female characters with curvaceous physique. The characters in games influence gender stereotypes by providing models of expected physical and psychological attributes of boys and girls. These influence the development of identity and assumption of roles of children. Advertisements express gender categorisation. In a study of advertisements targeting children in the United States and Australia, there is a common trend towards gender stereotyping. The portrayal of boys or the message of advertisements for products intended for boys express aggressiveness, mental dominance, active lifestyle and keenness in operating instruments. The advertisement targeting girls express physical attributes and embellishments. (Browne, 1998) Exposure to gendered advertisements also influences the awareness of children of gender differences and expectations. Gender role identification and categorisation also explain how media contributes to the development of gender stereotyping and gender roles in children. Gender role identification pertains to the association with a gender by an individual. Gender categorisation refers to the classification of attributes for males and females. Hogg & Vaughan, 2008;Myers, 2008) During the development years, children internalise media influences in categorising attributes. Their awareness of gender then leads them to identify with the attributes and role expectations of their gender. The extent of influence of media on the development of gender stereotypes and gender roles depends on the extent of exposure of children and the mediating role of parental supervision or intervention together wit h other influences. Parental influence and media influence are two factors that contribute to the development of gender stereotyping and gender roles in children. Gender socialisation and identification explain the influence on children. As strong influences, it is also through these factors that negative gender stereotypes and gender roles can be changed. Parents exercise authority and moral ascendancy over their children and children look up towards their parents for guidance or models during the development years. Parents should recognise their role in guiding the perspectives, attitudes and behaviour of children towards gender and gender identity development. There is need for parents to become conscious of destructive gender stereotypes and gender roles and proactively make changes, The interaction between various forms of media and children is increasing in frequency. While there are more gender sensitive and androgynous media content, children need parental supervision in internalising media content, especially since children are exposed not only to media intended for them but also to media intended for adults.

Nonviolence and South Africa Gandhi Essay

War is defined a state of hostility conflict or antagonism. But this definition would be thrown aside by a man named Mohandas Gandhi a man who would soon come to revolutionize India through the power of peace. Gandhi’s protests and civil disobedience would soon help create the India we see today. Gandhi did take India back from the British but not violently as one might expect, but peacefully through civil disobedience. This means that laws that Gandhi and his followers would refuse to obey any laws that they viewed to be unjust, not by striking blows but by carrying on with there daily activities while refusing to follow certain laws that they feel practice a system of apartheid. But keeping in mind never to strike back but to always keep your head up and never give up. Gandhi developed this idea of civil disobedience after his experience of apartheid while in South Africa. Gandhi while in South Africa Gandhi witnessed first hand the great injustices people of color faced simply while walking down the street. For example the need for a pass book by those of color. Gandhi saw this injustice and interjected, holding a public protest burning passbooks and symbolically burning the separation between people of color in South Africa and the British. But Gandhi did not stop there he went on to take this system of civil disobedience to India. In India he continued to gain followers and slowly take back India through his peaceful movements such as his salt march and cloth burning. Finally over the course of his adult life Gandhi had taken back India from the British all without India striking a blow. Gandhi clearly revolutionized India into its current state through peace. Gandhi, through peace, has helped change the way we see war.

Art and surreal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Art and surreal - Essay Example Both artists could be considered as actively employing the technique of action painting, defined as â€Å"a highly-charged, impulsive abstract painting technique during which paint is energetically splashed, spilt or dribbled onto a canvas, usually placed face-up on the floor† (Action painting, par. 1). Pollack’s One: Number 31 created in 1950 is basically shown in colors black, white and grey on a brown backdrop with obvious but artistic rendition of the drip technique. Miro’s The Birth of the World, was shown to indicate that â€Å"Miro applied paint to an unevenly primed canvas in an unorthodox manner—pouring, brushing, and flinging—so that the paint soaked into the canvas in some places while resting on the surface in others† (MOMA: Gallery Label Text, par. 1). The same colors are prominent, black, browns, grey, with intermittent white. A connection between the two art works could be deduced from the similarities in style and drips formin g long elongated lines that curve into an intricate web of patterns interwoven with other colors.

Argumentative ethical essay - Marijuana should be legal in the United

Argumentative ethical - Marijuana should be legal in the United States - Essay Example The stance taken in this paper is that marijuana must not be regarded as illegal since cigarettes and alcohol are considered legal at the same time. This is a very wrong phenomenon that has taken center stage and must either be diverted in one direction or the other to make it look balanced. Marijuana’s intake is a very legal right of every American and the laws which are made against the intake of marijuana are not only unethical but also in direct contrast of the rights of the common Americans. These laws and regulations must have a solid base before they could be obeyed in the most basic sense. There needs to be an understanding on the part of the lawmakers to realize the pitfalls and rights of the people before promulgating any laws that embody the banishment of marijuana within the boundaries of United States of America. Crude marijuana, as researchers have been able to extract possesses more than 400 chemicals as a combination. This however occurs during smoking when all of these 400 chemicals split up into thousands of other chemicals themselves. Notwithstanding the nearly 12,000 studies done on the medical utility of marijuana, a staggering common consent does exist in the scientific community of late which suggests that the smoked form of marijuana cannot be termed as a medicine. One should thus make laws that go against putting the users or sellers of marijuana in jails as they have a right to exercise their lives in the best manner that they deem fit. (Hough, 2003) Then again, cigarettes and alcohol comprise of tobacco and a host of other items within them but no one raises voice against their use. Marijuana is singled out as the only item that receives all the criticism and this is a very depressing situation. There must be criticism for other products as well and singling out marijuana is no t only wrong but also unethical from the people’s perspective when it comes to their rights. Similar bans

Survey Research and Sampling Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Survey Research and Sampling - Assignment Example This method of research is an important measurement area applied in social research within fields such as psychology, sociology, politics and market research (Creswell 2002, p.57). The approach often adopts interviews or questionnaire administration as the data collection modes. The survey method was introduced in the 1930s by a popular sociologist known as Paul Lazarsfeld (Sarah 2012b). Surveys are commonly classified according to instrumentation (questionnaires or interviews) and according to the time-frame of the study (longitudinal or cross-sectional) (Marczyk, DeMatteo&Festinger, 2010, p. 27). Surveys find wide application, but they are best suited for gathering information currently not available from other sources (Sarah 2012c). They therefore, could act as precursors to further and specific research in a quantitative, experimental approach. Surveys conducted in qualitative perspective can lay ground for the development of clearly defined and deeper studies in a quantitative a pproach (Sarah 2012c). This happens after research questions and variables get clearly defined in the preliminary qualitative surveys. Surveys are also important research instruments whose application is favored by various advantages that are inherent to the approach. For example, surveys offer a low cost approach to conducting efficient studies, especially when questionnaires are used. Unlike other approaches to research, surveys could also be tailored to take less time, and therefore, enhancing time efficiency and cost effectiveness (Sarah 2012a). Apart from cost and time effectiveness, surveys also provide high levels of representativeness (Sarah 2012a). This is important in enhancing validity of inferences made and generalization of findings to wider populations. Surveys are also important because they offer convenience in data collection, which could adopt various models such as interviews (face-to-face or telephone) and questionnaires (via mail, e-mail or hand delivery) (Sarah 2012a). This convenience could even allow globalized scale of data collection. Survey approaches are also important and appropriate when numerous variables are involved (Fink 2002, p. 71). Precision and standardization of surveys is also an important element that results from the clear definition and standardization of questions that equally assess participants. Criteria of a good sample in surveys Survey sampling entails the careful selection of survey participants by defining the inclusion and exclusion criteria as well as sample size (Sarah 2012c). Sampling is a critical phase in surveys because it determines the validity and reliability of the overall study. In order to be confident that the survey findings are truly representative of the target population, it is critical to ensure that the sample size is large enough and its components undergo random selection. In order to obtain a good sample a clearly defined criterion for the participants should be set so as to acquire a sa mple from which participants can offer reliable information for the assessment of the phenomenon of interest (Sarah 2012a). For example, in order to assess satisfaction in healthcare delivery, it would be appropriate to sample from the patient population rather than the medical practitioners’ population. Sampling the appropriate target population ensures the sample obtained is good for research. Randomness should also be enhanced so as to improve representativeness, which ensures the sample

Slavery in america contritubuted greatly to the economin growth which Research Paper

Slavery in america contritubuted greatly to the economin growth which america prosper - Research Paper Example According to Garvin Wright, slavery was seen in the economic sense as a system of production6. Hence many people never saw anything wrong with using other human beings for cheap, or in most cases, free labor. Slavery became the sole production system that was most economically efficient especially in the South. The practice was able to produce enormous amounts of wealth for many people. Just before the start of the Civil War, the South, which was more slave-dependent than the North, had a much higher per capita level than Italy or Spain, two of the countries that were considered economic super powers then. The South’s use of slaves to enhance prosperity was greatly reinforced by political and social structures which supported the use of free or cheap slave labor2. Below is an analysis of different areas of the American economy where slavery was used as a major boost to productivity and profitability. The United States had huge tracts of highly productive lands in the South, but there was one problem: lack of labor. Therefore, with the coming of slavery in the continent, plantation owners could produce whatever they wanted using the labor provided by the slaves. One of the crops that greatly improved the economy of the US during the slave era was cotton. Many white Americans owned huge tracts of land where they grew cotton, especially in the South. Due to lack of mechanization, the farmers depended on human labor on their farms. With slave trade, the farmers did not have to worry about paid wages for their workers; they made them work for free. Although the Africans themselves did not gain anything from all their efforts, the rest of America did enjoy the fruit of this unappreciated labor7. Cotton was a major export and it used to earn the country a lot of money. The slaves made it possible for the farmers to produce large amounts of

Economics of Race and Gender Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Economics of Race and Gender - Essay Example In addition, analysis of different movies indicated that it is something that is not unstoppable, and organized efforts will be very effective in eliminating it from the society. Specifically, it is an observation that although discrimination and racism are not visible evidently in the society, however, a microscopic eye can be very helpful in identifying such elements in the society, and it was understandable from different movies in the class. For instance, the film Rosie the Riveter evidently indicated the effects of discrimination on women during and after World War II in the United States, and the film showed such effects with the help of character ‘Rosie’ and her confrontation due to discrimination in California during wartime 1944. From this movie and other movies like Crash, Freedom Writer, one can clearly observe presence of discrimination and racism in the United States, and thus, the class helped enormously in better understanding of the topic. Despite the fact that in an ideal society, which many societies claim to be, access to political and economic opportunities must be based on meritocratic factors, however, the same is true. The entire human history reveals that social positions and social classes have greatly affected the ability of people to score on political and economic grounds. There are different ways of looking at the same. Firstly, it can be looked from the perspective of both genders. Despite women are in majority on this planet, yet there are a very few women leaders known to the world. In fact, the countries that claim to be most democratic ones had women suffrage for the longest periods. Secondly, it can be viewed from the point of view of social classes. It is common for children belonging to wealthy parents to get a good education and earn more in their coming life. Moreover, even the lower social class from which most number of people belongs has produced very few political leaders. Moreover, in many parts

Denny's Restaurant Chain Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Denny's Restaurant Chain - Essay Example The restaurants never close except when legally necessary. Denny’s offers breakfast, lunch, dinner and salads. It was in the year 1977 that the company started its Grand Slam breakfast. In 1987, Trans World Corporation bought the Denny’s and soon, in 1991, the headquarters of Denny’s was moved to Spartanburg, South Carolina. Soon, Kohlberg Kravis Roberts bought a considerable amount of share in Trans World Corporation and then, forced the company to sell its many unimportant projects. Thus, Denny’s hotel chain became its primary business. Soon, Trans World Corporation renamed itself to Denny’s Corporation. Presently, the company trades under the symbol NASDQ: DENN. Today, the company operates through 1600 restaurants throughout 50 US states, Canada and Mexico. In addition, there are 578 Denny’s restaurants in Japan operated by a subsidiary of Seven & I Holdings, and there are seven Denny’s restaurants in New Zealand. Admittedly, the co mpany has a large number of special offers and gift programs that help keep the customers loyal and interested. One such activity is its practice of offering free meal to everyone who visits the restaurant on his or her birthday. Though this activity of promotion was dropped by the company in 1993, many individual franchisees even now continue this practice. Also, the company uses the latest technology so that every time it updates its menu, its franchisees easily manage to get the latest version in no time (Hughes Network Systems, 2011). In fact, a point that keeps the company afloat in the present diminishing economic situation is the quality and care it offers. To illustrate, the Dateline NBC conducted a thorough survey of 10 most popular dining chains in the US in the year 2004. In the survey, it was found that Denny’s had the lowest number of violations of health standards. According to the company, the reason behind this success in protecting the health of customers is the strict adherence to Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points. Though there arose many allegations of racial discrimination against the company, the company managed to improve its position and presently employs a considerable proportion of ethnic and minority staff. As of 2010, minorities represent 62% of the company’s total workforce and 41% of the overall management. In addition, 40% of all the franchisees are owned by minorities, and nearly half of the Board of Directors is minorities and women. Thus, for two consecutive years, the company entered Fortune’s ‘America’s 50 Best Corporations for Minorities’ list (Dennys.com, n.d). Like many other major restaurants that are primarily dependent on blue-collar consumers, Denny’s too has been hit by recession. For example, in the fourth quarter of the year 2008, sales fell by 6.1%. For the year, fall was 3.7%. As a result, the company stock price plunged 30.5% in a period of one year. Howev er, Denny’s was not ready to succumb to the recession. It started aggressive plans to meet the hard times. To attract the customers in the time of recession, Denny’s has adopted an aggressive strategy. The strategy is to practically give away the company. To illustrate, the company aired a commercial in February that offered free Grand Slam breakfasts to all who walk into the restaurant any time between 6 am and 2 pm, in the name Super Bowl. Admittedly, there was a rush and nearly 2 million

INTIMACY, LOVE AND FRIENDSHIP Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

INTIMACY, LOVE AND FRIENDSHIP - Essay Example Love and intimacy are two basic pillars of modern marriage. Nevertheless, the issues of property are often challenging for the modern couples. In a sound modern marriage it is relevant to have a well-balanced relations in marriage, which are full-fledged at different levels of a marriage. Modern philosophers on love, intimacy and property In the book written by Laura Kipnis "Against Love" the author claims that there are societal bounds, which connect two spouses together. The concept of marriage is much wider, than it was a century ago. Now, it is a long-term romantic relation (gay, lesbian or straight). The concept of love and intimacy are often correlated with the concept of marriage. From the political perspective relation in a marriage facilitate governmental management over individuals (Kipnis, 2006). Kipnis in accordance with Freud underlines that â€Å"basic repression is necessary for any civilization to survive (Csencsitz, 2008). Currently, equal civic stability is an enfo rced compliance between the modern political and social system. Marriage exerts influence on love in order to "maximize submission and minimize freedom." (Kipnis 2006, p. 53). Kipnis defines love in the following way: â€Å"love is the nearest most of us come to glimpsing utopia in our lifetimes† (Kipnis, 2006). Therefore, currently marriage is considered to be an integrative component of spouses. Nevertheless marriage was previously considered as the relations between two spouses and they combined their mutual assets. Nowadays in Australia the number of one-person households increased and currently 9 per cent of Australians live alone (Classen, 2004). Very often it is possible to meet the couples in Australia, which do not have money for their own mansion. They live in the households of their own. Therefore, women do not want to risk their properties and neither do men. In the work presented by Susan Maushart an interesting interrelation between the concept of property and m arriage is discussed. Thus, it is described the way family lived through without technology (Shumway, Sterling, Kimball, Korinek, and Arredondo, 2007). Therefore, in the modern world a family and a marriage cannot exist without many external factors. Political factors, technological advancement are crucial issues in the existence of marriage and family. As far as we can see, modern people are dependent on different issues of the world. Another author Marilyn Yalom in her book â€Å"The History of the Wife† presents a changing nature of roles of women in the modern world (Yalom and Carstensen, 2002). Women work outside of home more than earlier. Women are turning into more independent; they have turned into a competitive workforce. Modern women want to have marriage and to be beloved women, but they lack role models. The icons of modern women are different. Popular culture represents them from different points of view. A different interpretation of marriage in the modern world Consequently, intimate relations and marriage is presented from an unusual perspective. Currently, modern love should be considered in the modern context. The earlier representation of romance currently coexists with intimacy. In accordance with Shumway the literature of love is focused on a perverted representation of love. Therefore, unlike â€Å"romantic marriage†, which existed after the period World War I, there is a high degree of intrigue and courtship in the modern marriage. In accordance wi

Alice in Wonderland Essay Example for Free

Alice in Wonderland Essay Its almost impossible to set this story in the time and in the space because nearly all of it forms part of a dream: Alice was very tired and suddenly she felt asleep and began to dream. However, she didnt realize that whatever she saw in Wonderland was only a dream, a product of her imagination but not the reality. Anyway, we could say that there are two main stages: the real world and Wonderland, the fictitious one. In Wonderland all is â€Å"nonsense† and strange, you dont know whats going to happen in each situation. The real world only appears at the beginning and at the end of the story when she wakes up from her nap. Because of it, this world is not very important for readers and for Alice too, who prefers living in a world completely different from hers. Interesting and strange things only happen in Wonderland where everyone is mad. Moreover, there we can see a lot of different places where Alice spends her time like the rabbit-hole, the house of the rabbit, the garden, the house of the Dukes. The time is not very clear because Alice thinks that she has spent a lot of time there, but all her adventures only last the time of her little nap. When you are sleeping you can believe that you have spent a lot of time dreaming and perhaps it has been no longer than fifteen minutes. She doesnt have any kind of time in Wonderland and everything happens all at once and very quickly; so that she didnt realize.

The Reproduction In Wolves Health And Social Care Essay

The Reproduction In Wolves Health And Social Care Essay This paper is an essay about reproduction in wolves. It is divided in to three major parts. The first part deals with the thing of the topic which is the wolf. Here the various aspects of the wolves are discussed these are the species, social life, hunting, communication and lifecycle. The second part deals with the main idea of the topic which is reproduction in animals. In this part the reproduction in animals is discussed. The aspects of reproduction that are explained include; the male and female reproductive systems, mating, gestation period where fertilization is explained, parturition and birth are tackled. In the third part the thing and the idea of the topic are combined to answer the questions and hypothesis relating to reproduction in wolves. Here the various aspects relating to the reproduction of wolves are discussed. The parts examined are the male and female wolf reproductive system, mating and the gestation period of a female wolf in terms of fertilization, parturitio n and birth. Introduction According to Whitt (2003) When the dog settled and embraced the community of human beings, its relatives continued to roam in the wild and they have become the most successful canid on the surface of the earth. According to Aamodt and Johnson (1987), the wolf is a wild dog and belongs to the group of animals that have the dog like traits. Scientists believe that they are direct ancestors of the present domestic dog. Even today the dogs and wolves have a lot in common. The average male wolf weighs between seventy and one hundred pound and measures from the nose to the tail, five to six point five feet (Aamodt Johnson, 1987). The two also note that the female ones are smaller and weigh fifty five to ninety pounds and are between four point five and six feet in length (Aamodt Johnson, 1987). Wolves have different colors with the majority having gray color shading but have the same body structure. Wolves like other canids have forty two teeth with twenty and twenty in the upper and lower jaw respectively. When they are moving or running, just like other canids, the wolves keep the back of their feet raised from the ground and this mode of movement is called digitigrades. Wolves are part of the canidae family which has over thirty five species including the foxes, coyotes, dingoes, jackals, dogs and the dholes. According to Mobile reference (2008), canids have long legs which are adapted for chasing their prey. All canids are digitigrades which means that they walk on four toes and their feet raised from the ground. They also have non-rectatile claws, bushy tails and dewclaws on their front feet. The canids also have a penis bone which is used for creating a copulatory tie during mating. The canids give birth to blind young one who opens their eyes after some weeks of being born. Most species in this family live and hunt as a group called pack. The wolves are classified in the canis genus since they are more doglike. According to Reiach et al (2002) there are three main types of species of wolves that is gray species which is the canis lupus, red species which is the canis rufus and the Ethiopian species which is referred to as the canis simensis wolv es. Wolf Anatomy and Taxonomy According to Marshall Cavendish Corporation (2010) all animals are classified by the scientists in to taxonomic groups based on the anatomical, genetic and biochemical similarities and differences. Wolves like other animals fuel their body by feeding food from other organisms they have a dorsal chord called the notochord that runs their bodies. Marshall Cavendish Corporation (2010) also states that on the external taxonomy, the wolves are quadrupeds with a narrow body, bushy tail and deep chest. The wolves according to Marshall Cavendish Corporation (2010) have shaggy fur, large ears, and have a big head with a slender pointed snout. The same Corporation opines that the nervous system of the wolves is characterized by high intelligence, high vision and hearing capabilities and acute smelling sense. The wolves are lithe and athletic animals. They are also muscular around the neck, hips and shoulders. On their respiratory and circulatory system, the wolves are warm blooded with a typic al mammalian circulation. They have large lungs and the larynx and vocal chords can produce a range of vocalizations. The wolves are committed carnivores with teeth that are suited for slicing the meat. They have a short and simple intestine and have a pair of kidneys used to remove metabolic waste through the blood. According to Whitt (2003) the taxonomy of the wolf is as follows. It belongs to kingdom animalia which includes animals with multicellular organs that do not have the cell wall and cannot make their food, it belongs to phylum chordata which include the animals that do have backbones or internal support and fall under the class of mammalian which includes the animals with fur and can produce milk. The wolf order is carnivora which include animals that subsists chiefly on meat and is fall under canidae family which is a group of animals with dog like traits. It is of the genus canis. There are three species of the wolf namely lupus which is the grey wolf, rufus which is the red wolf, and simensi which is the Ethiopian wolf. According Whitt (2003) more than twenty four species have been identified but have in the recent times been reclassified into five sub-species, that is, the arctas which in this case is the name for arctic wolf, lycaon which is the eastern gray wolf, baileyi which i s the Mexican wolf, nubilus which is the great plains wolf and finally occidentalis, which refers to the rocky mountain wolf. The sub-species can be distinguished from one another by use of size, fur color and the shape of the skull. Figure 1: Wolf Taxonomy Kingdom animalia Multicellular organisms that do not have cell walls and cannot make their own food Phylum Chordate Animals that have backbone and internal support. Class Mammalian Chordates that have fur and produce milk Orde Carnivora Mammals that subsist chiefly on meat Family Canidae Carnivores that have dog like traits Genus Canis wolves Species Lupus Gray wolf, subspecies lycaon Eastgern gray wolf Source: Whitt (2003). Species Gray Wolf According to (Whitt, 2003), the gray wolves are the largest in canid family and the male can grow as much as six and half feet (two meters) and stand from twenty six to thirty inches high from the ground . The average weight for males ranges from seventy to one hundred and ten pounds with the weighing fifty to eighty pounds and reaching lengths of six feet. The gray wolf I s also referred to as tundra, timber or silver wolf (Whitt, 2003). According to Harrington (2002), of the three wolf species, gray wolves are the most common and are found around the northern hemisphere the other two are very rare. According to Harrington (2002), Gray wolves have adapted to different kinds of habitats. Have gray fur and are the largest members of the canid family. Adult wolves weigh from eighty to one twenty kilograms. Ethiopian Wolf According to Animal Info (2005) Ethiopian wolves are diurnal. The wolves kill their prey and the kill is cached and retrieved later. They are both pre-eminent and cooperative hunters. Fuller (2004) observes the Ethiopian found is found in the in the Arabian peninsula, in northern Africa and in Ethiopian mountains. They live in pack of about two to twelve paired and related individuals. They prey on small and medium sized animals. They weigh about thirteen to eighteen kilograms. Harrington (2002) observes that the Ethiopian wolves are different from the gray and the red wolves. They are much smaller compared to the red and the gray wolves. They are only wolves that live in Africa. The scientist believed that the Ethiopian wolves were jackals. This is because they are they are smaller than the gray wolves, they are not stocky like the gray wolves instead they have long muzzles, long legs and slender noses just like the jackals and finally they eat small rodent which jackals love to eat . Red Wolf The red wolves are found in North America, weigh between twenty and forty kilograms and live in pairs of between three and ten (Fuller, 2004). Red wolves are similar to gray wolves. Just like the gray wolves the red wolves live in packs and hunt the prey animal. They also care for their puppies and howl to protect their territory. However they are different from gray wolves in that they have more reddish fur and are smaller than gray wolves. Adults weigh only forty to ninety pounds. Types Wolf Behavior Wolf Communication Behavior According to Wolf Haven International (2007) wolves use three types of communication namely the postural which involves the use of body language, vocal and olfactory which refers to use of smell. Olfactory communication involves scent marking which is mostly to mark boundaries, claim and defend the territories. Since they have scent gland in their toes they leave signature on all areas they go. They mark territories and food by urination. According to Wolf Haven International (2007) vocal communication among the wolves consists of howls, growls, barks and whines. They howl to claim territory or assemble the pack; whines are used by female as a sign of affection, growling is from the dominant wolves and are used to convey aggressiveness. Barking in wolves can be used to communicate excitement, raise alarm and call others to chase. Social Structure Socially wolves are organized in to packs. Aamodt and Johnson (1987), the wolves travel, hunt and perform most of their activities a group. The pack consists of members related by blood. They note that the core of the pack is a mated pair which consists of an adult female and a male. The other members are the offspring. They note that the packs may have six or seven wolves on average though the number may go up to fifteen. Like a family the members play different roles Aamodt and Johnson (1987.all the members of the pack are organized as a hierarchy with the breeding pair (alpha) at the top. At the middle of the hierarchy there are the subordinate called the beta and at the bottom there are wolves called the omega. The parent that is the alpha female and male is the oldest in the pack are involved in defending the territory and hunting due to their experience. They make important decisions like when to migrate or go for hunting. According to Aamodt and Johnson (1987) other pack membe rs down the hierarchy are allocated roles that inferior to those of the members. The young puppies and the juvenile do not have an active role in the hierarchy and are not allocated any permanent positions. In the pack the time for dismissing some adult s from the packs depends on the availability of the prey and the number of wolves in the prey. The dispersed members may end up forming a new pack or may join other existing packs. According to Aamodt and Johnson (1987 the social structure of a wolf can be thought of as hierarchy consisting of the layers outlined below. Figure 2: Wolf Social Structure The alpha male and female Beta male (this is the second ranking male sometimes mates with the alpha female) Young subordinates both male and female(often dominated by the alpha young ones ) Male and female juveniles and pups Male and female scapegoat(lives on the fringes of pack and may be mistreated by other members of the pack) Source: Aamodt and Johnson (1987). Territorial Behavior Reiach et al (2002) states that a wolf pack lives in a territory which must be characterized by enough fresh water and prey to feed the pack members. The territorial borders are marked with scent. They leave urine on scent post or upright marker for example tree stumps. The scents posts are constantly marked. Moves establish large territories in order to ensure that there is large supply of water and preys. The wolves mark their territories through methods such as howling, scent marking and direct attacks. Scent marking is done by ground scratching, defecation, and urination. In defending their territories wolves use scent marking which is done regularly and howling in order to prevent other wolves from entering the territories of other wolves. If these methods fail then the wolves may result into fighting the intruders and this can explain the high death rate of the wolves in the world. According to Defenders of Wildlife (2011), Wolves move, live and in packs consisting of four to seven animals. The pack consists of the mother, the father and the young one plus subordinate. The mother and father are referred to as the alphas lead the pack, track the prey, choose dens and mark the territory to be occupied by the pack. Feeding According to Boitani (2003) the wolves after killing their prey, they start by feeding the parts that have the most essential nutrients. The alpha female and male who is dominant feed first. So the feeding order is determined by the roles played by the wolves in the pack Boitani (2003). Boitani also notes that the wolves do not feed on meat alone since they require a balanced intake of nutrients. The most important organ to the wolves is the live since it provides them with a variety of vitamins. They also consume the heart and the lungs due to their high palatability just like the liver (Boitani, 2003). They also feed on the bones which provide calcium and phosphorous to their bodies. When food is not enough the priority is given to the puppies. Hunting According to Defenders of Wildlife (2011), wolves eat large hoofed animals such as the deer, elk and the moose and they also feed on animals that have died. On their part, Munoz et al (1994) opine that the wolves cooperate in hunting which enables them to bring down a prey. However wolves do not remain in the packs for long and this makes it difficult for them to know how to hunt as a group. Single wolves have a higher rate of succeeding in hunting than any other when they are working as a group. They find their preys through smell. According to Boitani (2003) when wolves are hunting not all members are involved in the attack of the prey. The alpha wolves lead other wolves in chasing and attacking the prey. The pack may also be split in to smaller hunting groups although cooperative hunting is emphasized among the wolves. Wolves conceal themselves when approaching their prey. They may attack animals as a herd or may isolate an animal from the rest and then start chasing it. They try to catch the animal before it runs for a long distance but for the big animals the wolves chase them for long distances. One wolf may be involved in distracting the herd of the preys while others may attack the animals from behind. They may also use ambush where they chase their prey towards the areas they have set a trap such as areas where they have dug holes. Denning and Sheltering Behavior Wolves dig holes for their puppies and use areas with natural shelters for examples in areas with thick vegetation, cliffs found in river banks and cracks found in rocks. The dens are usually dug by the female wolves. Life Cycle A wolf goes through series of changes. It is born, matures to an adult wolf which can mate or give birth (Reiach et al, 2002). The cycle begins with the birth pup. Pups are born in litters of two to seven wolves. They are fed by mothers milk. When they are a month old they join a pack when they may stay for the rest of their lives or may leave to join other packs Reproduction in Animals According to Net industries (2011), during sexual reproduction in animals a haploid sperm and an egg cell combine forming a diploid zygote which divides mitotically into an embryo. After birth the young one grows into an adult that can reproduce. The animals bring the sperms and the eggs through internal or external ways. In animals sexual reproduction requires the joining of the male and the female egg. When they combine the result is formation of a zygote. Since the animals produce sexually the male and the female are involved. There animals with one reproductive cycle while there are those with more than reproductive cycle. The female undergo reproductive cycles while the male are always in reproductive activity. The female become receptive to male when they are undergoing ovulation. This state where the female is sexual receptive to male is referred to as estrus. Estrous cycle can therefore be used to mean reproductive cycle. In external fertilization aquatic environment is funda mental for the floating of the eggs before they are fertilized. Male Reproductive System in Animals In internal fertilization the male posses a copulatory organ called the penis which is used for transferring to the female the male eggs (sperms). According fails et al (2009) in animals the male copulation organ can be divided into three areas that is the glans or free extremity, body also called the main portion and two crura or the roots. The internal structure consists of erectile tissues called the corpora cavernosa and has the trabecaculae tissues. In fibrelastic penis the major part of the penis consist of the trabeculae tissues hence the penis remains erect even when not erect. In musculocarvenous penis the blood sinusoids dominate the penis. Erection in musculocavernous penis occurs when the blood flows to the penis and leads to increase in size and turgidity of the penis Reece (2009) while in fibroelastic penis such as that of the swine and the ruminants has no great enlargement as result of blood flowing. The male eggs are formed in mature males through process called sper matogenesis. Female Reproductive System in Animals According fails et al (2009) the female eggs are produced by the female reproductive tract. It deposits the eggs to an area where they can be fertilized by the male sperms. This placement provides a good environment for the development of the embryo and expelling the fetus. According fails et al (2009) the reproductive system consists of the vagina, vulva, two ovaries, two oviducts and the uterus. The ovaries are responsible for the production of eggs through ovulation. Through the oviducts the ova from the ovaries is conducted to the uterus. The vagina acts as the birth canal through which the fetus is delivered and acts as the sheath for the male penis during copulation. The vestibule is the area that is between the external genitilia and vagina. This area has a lot of mucous glands (Fails et al, 2009). The vulva is found on the external genitalia and consists of left and right labia which converge at the clitoris which consists of two roots that is the body and the glans. If ferti lization occurs, the uterus provides a place for the development of the fetus Reece (2009). Through ovulation the female animals produce the female gametes. This happens periodically throughout the menstrual cycle. Mating During mating the penis is brought in to an appropriate position with the vulva of the female through a process called mounting (Reece 2009). According to him, successful mounting is preceded by a receptive stance by the female. In addition, he points out that that mounting can be affected if the male has a problem in the hind-limbs. The male animal introduces and maintains the penis in the vagina and this process is referred to as intromission this is enabled by the pelvic thrusts and abdominal muscles (Reece, 2009). The intromission time varies from one animal to the other. The stimulation continues and this leads to emission and ejaculation where the sperm oozes out of the penis into the vagina of the female animal. Sperm and fluids are ejaculated at the opening of the cervix in some animals while in others it occurs directly or partially in to the uterus. Gestation Period Gestation period refers to the period conceived female carries, in the uterus, the embryo. According to Fail et al (2009) the interval extends from the fertilization of the ovum to the birth of the offspring. It includes fertilization early development the embryo in the lumen of the of the female reproductive tract implantation of the embryo in the uterine wall, the development of the fetal membranes and the continued growth of the fetus while in the uterus. Fail et al (2009) states that gestation period vary from species to species. Normal gestation is when the fetus is carried thought out the gestation period. If a premature birth occurs the fetus is born before it is fully developed and this is called abortion. According Fail et al (2009) fertilization in animals occurs in the uterus. During copulation the sperms are deposited in to the females vagina. The condition where a female has a young one developing in the uterus is referred to as pregnancy (Fails et al, 2009). During pregnancy the animal experiences the development of the extra embryonic membrane which is used to feed the fetus and remove waste products. According Fail et al (2009) the placenta consists of chorion which is the outermost membrane, allantois which encloses the sac, and the amnion which is the innermost membrane. Parturition and Birth The end of pregnancy is marked by the parturition and involves giving birth. The act of giving birth is divided into three stages. The first stage involves the contraction of the uterine contracts to force the fetus to the cervix which takes a few hours. Secondly, the actual delivery takes place, from the cervix to the vagina. The third step involves the delivery of the placenta (Fail et al, 2009). Wolf Reproduction Introduction Wolves reach maturity at the age of two years. When the wolf have found a mate the courtship can last for many weeks. They are monogamous. When they mate the pair remains together in the pack. The age at which the wolves may start reproducing is influenced by the availability of food. The mating of the members of the same pack that is incest is not common among the wolves. According to Aamodt and Johnson (1987) it is only one pair of the wolves that is responsible for reproduction in a pack. It is only the alpha female and male who mate to produce offspring. Although there may be other pairs of wolves in the pack who can produce young ones, they do not in most cases mate. The alpha male uses dominance and force to discourage such wolves from forming pairs or mating. Breeding among the wolves is seasonal. This is because they experience one cycle of ovulation. All female and male wolves reach puberty at the age of twenty two months and they experience their first time production of th e sperms and the ova. The reproduction system in wolves has features that are not common with other mammals. The features of the reproduction is characterized by monogamy, monestrum with diestrous and proestrous phases that are prolonged, the lock and tie nature of their copulation, young adults being integrated into the pack and the leaders of the group suppressing the mating behavior of these young adults. Also wolves even the pseudo pregnant wolves that are those which do not get pregnant after matting are involved in the parental care of the puppies from the other wolves. Although the wolves experience one cycle of ovulation the chances of conceiving by the female are increased by the fact the both male and the female spend most of their time. For example when scent marking, the wolves do it together and this occurs when they are in proestrus phase. Also time in the estrus phase is lengthened thus the male and the female spend more time copulating. Male Wolf Reproductive System Males are twenty percent bigger compare to their female counterparts. They have a penis which supported by a bone called baculum the penis is tucked inside a skin called prepuce. In males that are mature sexually the testes are contained in a scrotal sac and hang between the hind legs. According to Marshall Cavendish Corporation (2010) male wolves have two sperm producing testes located in the external scrotal sac that hangs between the back legs. The Corporation also states that the sperms are produced in the area with the two testes. When the penis is inserted into the vagina of the female, the male wolf may ejaculate and the sperm pass along the urethra which runs through the penis. The male reproductive system can therefore be seen as comprising of several parts paired testes, duct system, scrotum, the prostrate gland and the penis. The sperms are produced in the testicles and stored in the epidermis and they are transported through the vas deferens. Female Wolf Reproductive System Female wolves which are older than twenty two months are capable of giving birth to pups. The females are seasonally monoestrous which means they come into a condition of breeding once in every year. According to the US National Research Council, most of the female wolves in a pack, in one year, give birth to one litter. The committee also highlights that presence of many female wolves with producing potential in a pack makes others not to breed. According to Marshall Cavendish Corporation (2010) the female wolves have two egg producing ovaries and from each ovary a fallopian tube leads to the uterus which has two horns. Marshall Cavendish Corporation (2010) also states that the uterus expands greatly during pregnancy and can hold a maximum of eleven pups. The female reproductive system of a female wolf can therefore be seen as consisting of various parts the ovaries which produce the eggs. After the eggs are produced, it travels through the oviducts to the uterus where it is supposed to meet the male egg and get fertilized. The uterus this is where the fertilized eggs stays and develops in to an embryo where the fetus results and finally into off spring of a wolf. In a female wolf there is a cervix found occupies uterus lower end and also occupies the upper part of the vagina. The vagina is the part of the reproductive system in the female wolf where the male wolf inserts the penis. Below the anus there is the vulva, this is the passage of urine. Phases of the Reproduction Boitani (2003) the reproductive behavior in wolves is related to the seasonal variation in the hormonal production. In autumn there is a rise testosterone hormone in males and estrogen hormones in males. The reproductive phases vary from individuals as a result of interplay of factor such as age, genotype, experience, latitude, body condition and the social environment. Pre-proestrus According to Boitani (2003) this phase occurs early winter or late autumn before the female wolves can produce a discharge from the vagina. In this stage the both the male and the female may express unreciprocated interest in another mate. The flirtatious behavior of the female may be affected by change in hormones resulting form rise in level of the gonadotropin. The Proestrus According to Boitani (2003), this begins when the bloody discharge and rapid growth in the uterine lining. The estrogen levels rise among the female wolves and the adult male s are usually attentive to the smell of the urine and the vulva. This is the communication means that are used for the newly formed pairs and who may be sexually naÃÆ'Â ¯ve. However males who have stayed with their mate may copulate (Boitani, 2003). According to Boitani (2003) the female wolves in this stage send signs to the male mates by prancing, body-rubbing, paw, nuzzling, placing their chin on the back of their males. Estrus According to Boitani (2003), this is the stage in which there is copulation and the female is receptive. He further states that a receptive female wolf shows two behaviors that is flagging which means the female averts the tail to the side of the vulva or may stand still when the male wolf mounts. This phase can also be identified by a vulva that is swollen or soft. The male may respond to females stimuli by licking the genitals and the mounting on her. If a female is non-receptive it may pull away growl, roll over, shove the male wolf away or lie down. The male may spread their hind legs to enhance stability required during mounting. According to Boitani (2003) mounting is followed by pelvic thrusts while the forelegs of the male clasp the ribcage of the female. The thrusting continues until the male ejaculates and this is followed by expansion of the penile bulb (Boitani, 2003). The female wolves get stimulated by this expansion thereby contracting muscle of the uterus to squeeze t he sperms to the ovaries. Metestrus According from Boitani (2003), Progesterone levels are high and pregnancy may result or not. Female wolves in this phase which do not get pregnant are referred to as pseudo pregnant. The males may abandon the pregnant female to look for other estrous females. Pregnancy can be identified by the loss of fur in the bellies and growth of the mammary cells. They may start constructing dens away from areas that can be attacked by other wolves Mating According to Marshall Cavendish Corporation (2010) the wolves courtship and breeding are inextricably bound up with their complex social life. Mating among the wolves is a fairly long- drawn-out affair. The penis of the male wolf swells when inside the females making it impossible for the male to withdraw. The two may remain locked for more than half an hour. This is to the advantage of the male since no other male that can mate with the female and this also enhances the chance of the male fertilizing the egg of the female (Marshall Cavendish Corporation, 2010). Gestation Period According to Mech (2003) the gestation period for r wolves is about sixty- two to sixty- three. After the male wolf ejaculates the male egg travel and in less than a minute meet the female egg and as result fertilization occurs. The fertilization and the early stages of the development of the fetus occur in the in the oviduct and the embryo goes to the uterus after some days. After four weeks of pregnancy it is possible to observe enlargement of the abdomen. Still it is possible to observe mammary gland development as the hair starts to disappear. Parturition in female wolves is identified by decline in the progesterone level. When giving birth, the female wolf undergoes through three stages. Internally the wolf experiences contraction of the uterus relaxing the cervix. The second stage is the expulsion of the fetus from the uterus and finally is the period between the fetus expulsion and placenta expulsion marks the end of this final stage. Because they deliver multiple puppies they alternate between expulsion of the fetus and the placenta. During pregnancy the female wolf does not undergo any hormonal transformation and therefore it becomes hard to differentiate between a pregnant female wolf from a non-pregnant one. Litter According to Boitani (2003) the pups are born with their eyes closed. The number of puppies that a female wolf can have depends on the species of the wolf. For example the fray wolf can produce between four and six offspring although the number may go up to fourteen. In one litter the red wolf can give birth to between two and three pups. The arctic wolf on the other hand can give birth to between four and five pups. When they are born, all the members of the pack have the responsibility of raising the offspring. The health of the pups is determined by the food availability to the mother. The pups are accorded a lot of privileges and freedoms compared to other wolves that are ranked in the lower positions in the hierarchy of social structure. Conclusion

My Philosophy of Education Essay -- Philosophy of Teaching Educational

My Philosophy of Education Is there a certain set of guidelines that need to be followed when teaching? If so, what should the main points of these rules be? I believe that when teaching, an instructor needs to consider the nature of the students and the importance of a good education. A teacher should also have some sort of idea about the teaching methods that should be used in the classroom. I believe that all students are capable of learning when given the opportunity. Children are not born evil. They are just simply born with a curiosity for new things. I think that the environment of a child affects their ability to learn. For instance, if a child is sent into a classroom where the temperature is constantly uncomfortable, the child’s attention will be diverted away from the lesson. A student needs to feel comfortable and relaxed when attempting to learn something new. I also feel that lessons should be taught on the level of the students because children do not think the same as adults do. They learn better through their experiences. Therefore, lessons should be as simple as possible and involve some sort of hands-on learning experiments. I think that the nature of knowledge is relative because the truth can vary depending on certain factors. These factors include the individual person, the time, and the place where the truth is created. I believe that a person can develop their own knowledge based upon their own personal beliefs and experiences, whereas, the absolute nature would require the truth to be discovered instead of created. The overall purpose of education is to teach children the skills that are needed to function in the real world. These skills allow the children to receive better jobs, which in turn... ...want my students to respect me; I do not want them to fear me. The areas of particular importance in the elementary curriculum are reading and writing. I will stress these areas because they are used in everyday life for entertainment and other activities. For example, many people read books or magazines to pass the time. Some people write in diaries or write letters to family and friends during their spare time. I believe that students need to have a firm grasp on these two subjects before pursuing further education. In conclusion, there are a set of guidelines that teachers need to follow. These rules are not universal but they are the personal beliefs and goals of the teacher. A teacher needs to have an idea about the nature of the students, the purpose of education, the teaching methods, and curriculum before attempting to educate a class full of students.

Ubiquitous Man :: science

Ubiquitous Man A glance over the world from the point of view of a Science Fiction Writer who assumes that Time is waved to all directions Motto: The only thing you have really got is what you are and it is on you forever. Mihaela Bufnila ASSUMPTIONS If God had died what would be the use of beautiful language and why would â€Å"beautiful† exist or function anymore deep down the oceans? If I multiply and metamorphose into a cloud of spots under the pressure of magnetic fields, will I be able to enlarge my informational surface? The supreme miracle stands for the way in which an assembly of points realizes it is an assembly of points. The Ubiquitous Man seems to be the man of all times shaped into the body of contemporary Time. If this is not true, then I may be wrong when reporting myself to reality, and I have no other choice but accepting the generalized and the generalizing fiction according to which I don’t even exist and, thus, I cannot witness myself. This means that, as I am only contents, I couldn’t possibly build my exteriority from where to fully spy myself while plunging into the pleasure of the principle of multiple of one. The Ubiquitous Man seems to be caught between the history jaws, on the verge of being smashed by his own sins, by his own fictions, or by the crowds waving like a roaring ocean, or by revolutions and wars or by impersonal administrative acts or by nature hardships – which is not a proper nature anymore. As a universal construction, the Ubiquitous Man doesn’t seem to be built by addition, the idea of a flowing time is seemingly. The time seems rather waved; the ubiquity gives the impression of the wave that†¦ And look! You can see it before our visible horizon, now up, under the consciousness reflector, then vanished down the ocean full of universes, to the sailor’s anxiety. The Ubiquitous Man seems to be the man you feel close to you, resembling you, a sailor through the meaningful or meaningless storms, self-sufficient. Often, the Ubiquitous Man ends up by being ridiculous, tragic or anecdotic. It is like, being upset that his predecessors are not sharing his attempts, he punishes them by exterminating them together with him, and this is his way of perceiving the finite. Frequently, the Ubiquitous Man, a fragmented creature, cannot understand, cannot comprise all, cannot find out the meaning of things and then, he is expelled from the sailing registrar in one movement.

Do Video Games Cause Violence Essay

Do violent video games cause violent behavior? I believe that violent video games do not cause violent behavior. While I agree that violent video games may desensitize youth to violence, I don’t believe the games make the youth more violent than they already are. Its not fair to single handedly blame violent video games, when there are tons of other violent media sources out there. Karen Sternheimer is a sociologist from the University of Southern California and has been researching the topic since 1999 and she says â€Å"Placing the blame on video games exonerates the environment that a child lives in that might nurture violence: poverty, instability, family violence, unemployment, and mental illness, Sternheimer argues.† I agree with her that blaming the games is a cop out and an excuse for the parents and other violent media to not have to take responsibility. In Sternheimer article titled â€Å"Do Video Games Kill?† She says â€Å"If we want to understand wh y young people become homicidal, we need to look beyond the games they play,† I agree with Sternheimer here because I think that its safe to say a youth doesn’t just suddenly get the urge to go out and start killing people. If people were willing to look beyond face value and beyond how something appears to be. They would see that these kids who become violent might be being bullied, or depressed or have other life things going on that pushed them to the â€Å"breaking point† and they just might happen to play a violent video game. The research that show violent video games causing aggressive behavior are not accurate to how these games are played in real life. Andrew Przybylski and colleagues who wrote an article in the Review of General Psychology say that â€Å"most video game experiments only have players play for short periods of time, often for as little as 10 minutes, and violent games tend to be more difficult to learn and have more complex controls than non-violent games, it appears that many participants in these experiments may simply have been frustrated by being cut off so quickly before they even learned how to play, rather than by the violent content of the game.† (Review of General Psychology). To me this makes the research the people are using to discredit the violent video game unreliable. They are just taking the data and interpreting it to show their side as being right. I know that if I only had a short amount of time to learn a new video game it would make me pretty frustrated too. So the aggression that they are seeing is not necessarily aggression from the game as it is aggression from failing. Graduate student Jose Valadez found that both violent and nonviolent games tend to relax people over time, not anger them. People now days actually do use games to release stress and relax. Sometimes people who are feeling aggressive use the games to vent that aggression rather than have the game add to their aggression. Almost everyone will have a homicidal thought at one point or another in time. But for those thought to turn to action is a completely different problem that does not have any association with video games. When a youth acts out in violent manner instead of looking at what video games they are playing they need to be looking at the mental health and stability of the youth. Consistent and ever present homicidal thoughts are linked with severe mental health problems such as psychosis, depression, anxiety or paranoia. (Scientific American) Those mental illnesses are causing violent behavior not video games. Blaming the video games also allows for a cop out for parents. In the United States the ESRB or Entertainment Software Rating Board puts ratings on all games. Those rating range fro EC or early childhood to AO or Adult only. All of the games accused of causing violent behavior in youth such as Call Of Duty, Halo or Grand Theft Auto are all rated M for mature meaning the parents or someone of authority had to purchase these games for the youth. The ESRB rates these games with certain age requirements for a reason. Allowing anyone to blame the video game takes all accountability off of the parents because they don’t have to own the choice to ignore the advice of the rating company and allow their children to play these games. Being able to blame the video games also ignores the violence the youth is exposed to at home also allowing the parents to blame something else besides themselves. While the media says two boys went on a killing spree in the mall and they happened to play halo is a harsh generalization that shouldn’t be said or used, because while these kids may have played halo doesn’t mean that halo is the reason these kids went on a killing spree. These kids could have been being physically or emotionally abused at home. Abuse makes people feel helpless powerless and worthless. These kids could have finally just had enough and acted out in a violent manner just to finally feel like they had power in their lives. Abuse could be the answer but no one would know becaus e the parents will never admit to being abusive. If all other arguments fail the one that has to be considered is that videogames are not the only violent media out in the world. While violent video games are first person and put the player in the shoes of the shooter or killer it is no less desensitizing then it is to watch someone else on a screen kill somebody. Violent movies show some of the most realistic and grotesque violence around. When it comes to desensitizing someone to violence or glorifying violence movies are just as guilty if not more guilty than games. Movie like Act of Valor or Rambo glorify violence because they show the â€Å"hero† killing the â€Å"bad guys† in reality not on a animated picture. Violent music is also guilty but has been brought to more light in examples such as the Cassie Jo Stoddart case where the two boys who killed Cassie said they were inspired by the lyrics from a song by the band Insane Clown Posse who are known for their intensely violent lyrics. If people are wanting to blame video games a form of media they also need to look at all other forms of media involved in that youths life such as what music they have on their iPods or mP3 players to what movies they have at home and that they have watched recently. In conclusion while violent video games may contribute to the desensitization of violence they are not alone in the desensitization of violence. Also until there is a set scale and proven test to determine the aggression associated with video games they can not be blamed for the acts of anyone one else. Parents need to also be held more accountable for the actions and roles they play in these tragic events they need to stop hiding behind video games and take responsibility for what has happened.We as society also need to step up and look harder for the solution to why these teens go homicidal rather than blaming the first thing that we find.

Are Social Networks a Good Thing? Essay

When I think of social networks, I personally feel that they are a waste of time and there really is very little need for them; I can concede that they are helpful and give a lot of freedom and communication to virtually anybody but I feel that the more and more they evolve, the more engrossed in them people soon become. Social networks are a huge part of an era of the future and take away some of the best aspects to communicating and meeting people. To speak to people and see them in a physical form is by far the greatest way to truly know someone and communicate – Yet now with social networking becoming so popular and common, there is a rapid decrease in the amount of people who choose to communicate in a more traditional and exclusive way – which leads me to believe that social networks are not really worth the time they are so heavily privileged. Social networking can be seen in a variety of ways and a lot of opinions will be rife in praise. Social networks cause lots of grief, humiliation and (in extreme circumstances) even death. The number of teens that fall victim to the likes of cyber-bullying is astonishing and shocking. One in three teenagers *1 have been victims of cyber-bullying and the number will continue to rise. Sites like ask.fm and Facebook contribute heavily to why young people are becoming victims of verbal abuse or bullying due to the social networking they so often adore. The ease of access and use of sites like ask.fm and Facebook are a main source of the problem – children under the age of thirteen are becoming more and more engrossed in sites like Facebook and twitter all the time. – that eventually begins to fuel teenage suicides *2 and depression. These problems are caused by the function for people of all ages to say what they want behind a computer screen without any direct consequence on them. Sites like ask.fm are designed for people to communicate and share their thoughts and ideas without having to reveal their true identity and to prevent being judged but give people the opportunity to say horrible and hateful things to people without having to face any consequence. It is due to these sites that the rates and statistics of suicides, depressions and vulgar abuse are  increasing and can be so easily stopped. Although many will neglect, the increase in social networks and time spent on them are slowly and efficiently leading to poorer grades in schools across the country. *3 Due to this, children are worryingly, becoming less likely to leave school with top grades and struggle to gain entry to university degrees and college courses, which can often leave them disappointed with themselves and their futures. A lack of concentration and a poorer developing of essential vocabulary is becoming more and more common and directly results to them finding difficulty in what is already difficult exams. With the removal or clamping down of social media access, teens would become more focused on what is truly important and can totally shape their future with the right amount of hard work and dedication. On the other hand, social networking is not all bad and is a good form of free communication that can be used well, in moderation. Sites like Facebook and Twitter can allow the quick and efficient communication between many people but can also be a gateway to meeting people from all over the world. As appealing as it sounds it can often be abused by a minute minority but is generally used well and can be of great value to many. The interaction with others online can be of great help to some people and can help them become more confident around new people, their self confidence can be improved as well with the approval of peers online, thus resulting in a more confident and enjoyable approach in all walks of life. Due to social networking, young people can greatly benefit from the ever-growing evolution that is modern day technology and greatly improve in the practical aspects of using computers and other types of technology that are so commonly used and operated in the modern day of work. There can also be an increase to essential literacy skills – that are required to progress in school – through digital media and other forms of media through the social media platforms so accessible and varied throughout the world of online social media. Social media can be a goldmine of support to some people that feel especially  sequestered and have very unique and diverse interests. Through the use of a platform that is so widely accessed and can link to all corners of the world, it helps the most unique of people to find common ground and interests they can not only share themselves but with many others while making friends and learning about all new cultures and places in the meantime. It can allow the ideas and opinions of many different types of personalities to come together and have a say about topics and ideas that may only apply to a very distinct group of people. In many ways social networking cannot replace the topical news published in good, broadsheet newspapers and respectable websites like the guardian, but can be a good source of information and allow connections to people with similar interests to be made. Which can cause an exchange of information and different peoples understanding of a topic to help and drive the learning of the user greatly. Social media is also an incredible form of communication with the world, for some people who want their opinions and views to be heard, they can use the likes of Twitter and Facebook to attempt to reach out towards the rest of the world. This can be very important and helpful to some people and can directly contribute to a greater feeling of satisfaction and pride when they are able to voice their opinions to the world. Social networking has many positive aspects and can truly help people stay in contact, it provides a link to the world and there is a real desire for it, with the growing introduction of social networking in the education system it could potentially revolutionise and shape the modern way of life completely and is becoming a true leading breakthrough in the technological world. To conclude, I believe that social networking has its flaws – extreme as they may be – but should not be taken away completely. It should be improved and tweaked vigorously, to prevent people from being forced into a position where they seek the option of taking their own life as a result of the abuse and bullying they have to live with. Social networking is a topic where there is no right or wrong answer and there is plenty of evidence to go toward it or against it but I think there is more good done from it than it  is given praise for and I believe it to be an incredibly useful platform if used correctly.

Emergent Literacy Support in Early Childhood Education Essay

26 preschool teachers and 8 preschool administrators drawn from 8 preschools in Kasempa and Solwezi districts constituted the sample. A total 680 preschoolers were part of the classroom environments in which naturalistic observations were conducted. The data were collected through questionnaires for preschool teachers, designed to capture preschool teachers’ knowledge of emergent literacy and classroom practices. Questionnaires were also administered to preschool administrators and these were designed to capture the schools’ profile on their teachers, philosophy on literacy instruction and availability of teaching and learning materials. For the naturalistic observation of actual classroom sessions, data were gathered with the aid of a Classroom Literacy Checklist. Further data were collected using semi-structured follow-up interviews to fill in any gaps from questionnaires and observations. The findings were that all the preschools investigated had low literacy support as a result of limited language and literacy opportunities for the children and paucity of learning and play materials. Lack of the preschool teachers’ appreciation of emergent literacy rendered them unable to fully provide environments and practices that support emergent literacy. INTRODUCTION Background: The concept emergent literacy was introduced in 1966 by a New Zealand researcher Marie Clay in her doctoral thesis entitled Emergent Reading Behaviour but the term was coined by William Teale and Elizabeth Sulzby in 1986. The term was used to describe the behaviours seen in young children whereby they imitate adults’ reading and writing activities, even though the children cannot actually read and write in the conventional sense. The development of the emergent literacy perspective can be traced from the reading readiness perspective. In the four decades since Clay’s introduction of this term, an extensive body of research has expanded the understanding of emergent literacy. According to current research, children’s literacy development begins long before they start formal instruction in elementary school; it begins at birth and continues through the preschool years even though the activities of young children may not seem related to reading and writing. Early behaviours such as â€Å"reading† from pictures and â€Å"writing† with scribbles are examples of emergent literacy and are an important part of children’s literacy development. With the support of parents, caregivers, early childhood educators, and teachers, as well as exposure to a literacy-rich environment, children successfully progress from emergent to conventional literacy. In other words their growth from emergent to conventional literacy is influenced by their continuing literacy development, their understanding of literacy concepts, and the efforts of parents, caregivers, and teachers to promote literacy. It proceeds along a continuum, and children acquire literacy skills in a variety of ways and at different ages. Children’s skills in reading and writing develop at the same time and are interrelated rather than sequential. Educators can promote children’s understanding of reading and writing by helping them build literacy knowledge and skills through the use of engaged learning activities. As children are moving into conventional literacy, they pass through different periods of development in their efforts to become successful readers, just as they did at the emergent level. Over the past ten years, the concept of emergent literacy has gradually replaced the notion of reading readiness. Consequently, it has a significant impact on the way the teaching of literacy in early childhood programmes is approached. The theory of emergent literacy developed from research in the fields of child development, psychology, education, linguistics, anthropology, and sociology. It has virtually redefined the field of literacy and made educators, teachers, and parents aware that the term reading readiness no longer adequately describes what is happening in the literacy development of young children (Teale, 1986). Research conducted on emergent literacy indicates that support to children’s emergent literacy in early childhood education facilitates easy literacy development in children. Parents, caregivers, and teachers need to ensure that young children are exposed to literacy-rich environments and receive developmentally appropriate literacy instruction. Such environments and experiences have a profound effect on children’s literacy development by providing opportunities and encouragement for children to become successful readers. Thus a preschool should be an environment that supports the  continuation of emergent literacy. In order for a preschool to promote the continuous emergence of literacy, it must be an environment where there is a high variety of authentic literacy activities. It must also be an environment that affords learners opportunities to engage in purposeful literacy activities which are acknowledged as valid literacy behaviour. In the Zambian context emergent literacy is a fairly new phenomenon. Its practice is dependent on what teachers know and believe about it and this also is dependent upon the training that preschool teachers undergo. Against the background of emergent literacy, the concern of early childhood educators should be â€Å"valuing the knowledge children have than with replacing it by highly dubious and narrow models of what literacy is and how it functions† (Hall, 1989: viii). Little is known regarding literacy teaching in preschools in Zambia. This study, therefore, attempted to find out the extent to which classroom practices in preschools in Zambia, with special reference to Kasempa and Solwezi, support the continuation of emergent  literacy in children. Statement of the problem: Although the theory of emergent literacy has been in use for over four decades, it is not known to what extent emergent literacy is appreciated and supported in early childhood education in Zambia. While research has been conducted in other parts of the world, there has been no investigation into its practice in Zambia’s preschools. Thus the problem that was being investigated was that we do not know the extent to which classroom practices in Zambian preschools, and with particular reference to Kasempa and Solwezi, support the continuation of emergent literacy in children. Objectives: This study sought to achieve the following objectives: (i) To ascertain preschool teachers’ knowledge of emergent literacy in children. (ii) To establish the extent to which the classroom environment supports the continuation of emergent literacy. (iii) To establish what literacy instruction programme is in place and the extent to which it supports emergent literacy. (iv) To find out teaching and learning materials that are available in preschools and the extent to which they support emergent literacy. (v) To establish classroom literacy practices that obtain in preschools and the extent to which they support emergent literacy. Significance of the study: The significance of this study was premised on the fact that it focused on one critical area of education namely early childhood education. While a lot of research has been done on the basic and high school sectors of education in Zambia, very little has been done on preschool education. It is indisputable that good early childhood education is a precursor to the other levels of education. This study sought to investigate the extent to which classroom literacy practices in early childhood education in Zambia support the continuation of emergent literacy. Such a study has not been explored before in Zambia. This study, therefore, is significant in that it might provide valuable data on early childhood teachers’ knowledge of emergent literacy and the extent to which classroom practices support the continuation of emergent literacy. It is hoped that such data might be useful to policy makers such as the Ministry of Education and preschool curriculum des igners. In this way, it might provide data on which future curricula for early childhood educators’ training can be based. It is also hoped that the study will stimulate further research into emergent literacy practices in Zambian preschools, which is currently lacking. METHODOLOGY Research design: This study was qualitative as the researcher sought to interpret his observations and the respondents’ views to establish the extent to which practices in the target preschools support the continuation of emergent literacy. However, the study also employed some quantitative elements in the design. The study was also naturalistic because there was no systematic manipulation of any process during observation. Rather the researcher observed live classroom practices in the preschools as the teachers and learners went about with their activities. Sample size: The sample for the study was drawn from eight preschools in the  two study areas, namely Kasempa and Solwezi Districts in North-western Province. The sample size comprised 26 preschool teachers and 8 preschool administrators. 680 preschoolers were part of the classroom environments where the naturalistic observations took place. The sample structure for the preschool teachers is presented below as Table 1: Highest Qualification Males Female Total Untrained Certificate Diploma Primary Certificate Totals Teacher’s (Table 1): Sample Structure for Preschool Teachers in the Study Areas 5 Sampling techniques: Samples were chosen on a non-probability basis on the understanding that respondents would be available, easy to access and ready to participate in the study. As such and convenient and purposive samplings were used. This is because the researcher selected samples according to what was logistically convenient and feasible. Bearing in mind the period in which the study was to be undertaken, the preschools that were selected were those that were not in hard-to-reach areas. This was in line with Ghosh (2006) who says convenience sampling is used when the universe is not defined and when administrative limitations make it difficult for the researcher to randomly select samples. Since purposive sampling is used to target a group of subjects a researcher believes to be reliable for a study (Kombo and Tromp, 2006), in this study it was used to select the eight schools in the study area. The use of this sampling technique was aimed at ensuring that only well-established preschools were targeted. Data collection: Three instruments were used to collect data. The Classroom Literacy Checklist was used as a classroom observation instrument. It was used to check for classroom practices in terms of literacy-richness of the environment, reading practices, variety of literacy activities, authenticity of literacy activities and teachers’ usage of children’s knowledge of literacy. It was adapted from other literacy observation checklists such as the KS1 Format and the National Centre for Learning Disabilities 2004 Literacy Environment Checklist developed by Groover J. Whitehurst (Ph.D.). These observation instruments are designed to assess whether literacy environments in preschools provide a range of quality literacy experiences and a print-rich environment which are important factors in the facilitation and support of literacy learning. Two types of questionnaire were used, one for teachers and the other for administrators. The questionnaires for the teachers sought to elicit information on their training and knowledge of emergent literacy. The questionnaires for the administrators sought to elicit information on the school profile, instructional materials and the school’s ethos on literacy development. Questionnaires were given on the first day of research at each preschool. The idea was to give respondents three to five days of answering the questionnaire, based on findings from the pilot test. Interviews were conducted with teachers and administrators as follow-ups to help fill in gaps or clarify any matters from 6  questionnaires and observations. For the teachers these were done soon after each observation. For administrators these were conducted at least twice in each school, one of which was on the last day of the research at each particular preschool. Data analysis: Since this study was mainly qualitative, data analysis (particularly preprocessing) began during the data collection stage. During lesson observations the researcher made class profiles by recording the children’s level, age range and enrolment. The researcher was also doing a dairy on each lesson observed. Another thing the researcher did at this stage was to ensure that the data were internally consistent. For example, the researcher would make follow-ups with informants to clarify any contradictions and gaps in the questionnaires or interviews. Data preparation then followed and this included summarizing and organizing the data according to categories. At the final stage the  researcher sought to make interpretations of the questionnaire responses, obs ervations and interview responses. FINDINGS This study sought to find out the extent to which classroom practices in preschools support emergent literacy. The study relied mainly on naturalistic observations of live classroom sessions but this was complemented by questionnaires and follow-up interviews. Below is a discussion of the specific findings, divided into five sections, each discussing the findings in relation to each of the five objectives of the study. Preschool Teachers’ Knowledge of Emergent Literacy: The study has revealed that none of respondents had ever heard of the term ‘emergent literacy’. In spite of this, the findings have also revealed that all the respondents have noticed elements of emergent literacy in children when they just enter preschool. The study has further shown that respondents have high awareness levels of children’s emergent literacy behaviours. However, the study has also revealed that generally, the respondents’ appreciation of the children’s emergen t literacy was very poor. One area major area where this was evident was with regard to knowing how to reinforce children’s display of emergent literacy (for 7  example if a child got a book and began to turn pages or if a child stood up and began to ‘read’ around the room). This apparent disparity between the respondents’ high awareness of emergent literacy behaviours and their low appreciation of emergent literacy can be attributed to the respondents’ training. It was clear that preschool teachers are not taught about emergent literacy, hence the respondents did not regard emergent literacy behaviours as a developmental stage in literacy learning. Generally all the respondents tended to subscribe to the reading readiness perspective. In relation to the purpose of the study, these findings suggest that preschool teachers in the study areas cannot provide the necessary support to children’s emergent literacy if they are ignorant of emergent literacy as a developmental stage in children’s literacy learning. Preschool Classroom Environment: This study has revealed that the classroom environments in the study areas have low literacy support. It has also established that the most common aspects of literacy support were the alphabet frieze and month and day names. This effectively means that the environments were not print-rich. The study has further revealed that the preschool teachers had low knowledge levels of how a preschool environment ought to be. In cases where the respondents revealed high knowledge levels, there was a gap between this knowledge and what was obtaining in the classrooms. The findings established that this was due to paucity of resources and having proprietors/managers who were ignorant of preschool education. These findings suggest serious implications on children’s literacy development. First because preschool teachers and proprietors/managers tended to have low appreciation of what a preschool environment ought to be, they cannot provide the requisite envir onment that fully supports the continuation of emergent literacy. Secondly, because preschool children in the study areas have little exposure to a literacy-rich environment, they may not easily progress from emergent to conventional literacy. Preschool Curriculum: This study has revealed that the study areas do not seem to have any clear philosophy regarding literacy instruction. As such the preschools did not have clear literacy instruction programmes. The study has also established that there is no common syllabus for preschools in Zambia. Preschools were using whatever they could lay their hands on. These findings show that it is difficult to measure the schools literacy instruction success when issues of syllabi are vague. Literacy Instruction Materials: This study has revealed a paucity of teaching and learning materials in the study areas. The most commonly available instructional materials are flashcards, charts and building blocks. The study has established that there is a lack of a variety of reading books, workbooks, literacy objects for pretend play, and generally playthings. In view of the paucity of literacy instructional materials in the study areas, there is less support to children’s emergent literacy as children do not have sufficient interaction with a variety of literacy objects. The other implication is that with the paucity of play things, the children spend less time on play related activities and do more of formal learning. Classroom Literacy Practices: This study has revealed that using music is a practice widely employed in all the eight preschools. However, the study has also established that preschool children in the study areas have limited reading experiences. In almost all cases children seldom handle reading books as this is reserved for Reception or Grade 1 levels. This is because teachers do not see this as necessary since the children cannot read in the conventional sense. Further children are rarely read to and hardly engage in shared book reading. It has also been found that there are hardly any independent activities for c hildren not working with an adult. More formal learning as opposed play-related learning has been found to be a common practice. The implication of these findings is that preschool teachers in the study areas are not using developmentally appropriate activities to teach literacy to the preschoolers. CONCLUSION By analysing the classroom practices, preschool teachers’ knowledge of emergent literacy and the environments in the study areas, this study has established that the practices in the eight preschools do not provide sufficient support for the continuation of emergent literacy. A number of factors have militated against high support for emergent literacy. The first factor is the preschool teachers’ lack of knowledge/appreciation of emergent literacy. This has arisen from the nature of training that preschool teachers undergo in Zambia. Coupled with this is the fact that some of the preschool teachers currently serving in schools have not undergone formal training. In this study almost a third of them were untrained. The other factor is lack of resources to construct appropriate structures for  preschools and furnish them with requisite materials. This has been compounded by the fact that preschool education in Zambia is privately run and as such the Government has had n o stake in it. The third fact is the very fact that Government has had no stake in preschool education. This has led to lapses in the registration of preschools and lack of serious and constant monitoring of preschools. As such there is no quality assurance in the provision of preschool education. The results of this study are significant in two main ways: the results have indicated the need for capacity-building preschool teachers in the area of emergent literacy. The results have also demonstrated the need for Government’s keen participation in preschool education. As regards the need for capacity-building preschool teachers, the study has demonstrated that while preschool teachers may notice emergent literacy behaviours among preschool children, they cannot unwittingly provide the necessary scaffolding to emergent literacy if they do not have sound knowledge of the phenomenon. This, therefore, means that emergent literacy must be part of preschool teachers’ curriculum. The need for government’s keen participation in preschool education arises from the fact that most of the inadequacies noted are a result of lack of stringent regulation and monitoring of preschool education. Stringent regulation will ensure that only individuals/institutions meeting the minimum standards are allowed to run preschools. On the other hand, constant monitoring will ensure that high standards are maintained in preschools. Another key way Government needs to participate in preschool education is through provision of grants or instructional materials. It is commendable that preschools are now falling under the Ministry of Education which has expert personnel to oversee the running of education provision in general and preschool education in particular. There is, however, need to come up with a directorate responsible for preschool education. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to acknowledge the valuable contribution of the many people without whom the demands of this research would not have been met. First I pay tribute to my academic supervisor Dr John Simwinga who provided the much needed counsel, guidance and criticisms from the proposal stage right through the completion of this thesis. Thank you for your confidence in me and giving me latitude throughout this academic journey. May God continue to lift you in your academic pursuits. I also wish to thank Mr D.C. Nkosha for having inspired my interest in emergent literacy which led to my pursuing this study. I thank lecturers Mr G Tambulukani and Mr S.B. Hirst for making useful comments at various stages of the study; all lecturers on the NOMA (Norwegian Masters) Literacy Programme for sharpening my academic faculties. Special thanks go to all the participants in Kasempa and Solwezi districts who made it possible for me to undertake the study at no cost. I extend my thanks to all my colleagues on the course with whom I worked well. Notable among them are Ms Mary-Grace Musonda, Ms Georgina Njapau and Mr Benson Kamangala. My gratitude will be incomplete without expressing my indebtedness to my wife for tolerating my academic appetite and for her continued understanding, support and perseverance and remaining a pillar in our home during my long periods of absence. I remain grateful to the girls Tionge and Peggy for enduring my absence and remaining good children while I was away. I am grateful to my employers for granting me paid study leave yet again, without which it would have been impossible to pursue my master’s programme. I shall remain forever grateful for the NOMA scholarship granted to me through the University of Zambia. To God be the glory for the great and many things He has done for me. REFERENCES Barton, D., 2007. Literacy – An Introduction to the Ecology of Written Language. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Bergen, D., 2001. Pretend Play and Young Children’s Development. ERIC Digest, ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood Education  Bredekamp S. (ed.) 1987. Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children from Birth Through Age 8. Washington, DC: NAEYC. Freeman, E.B., and J.A. Hatch 1989. â€Å"Emergent Literacy: Reconceptualizing Kindergarten Practice.† Childhood Education, 66, 21-24. 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